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560 Olivares, Conde-Duque de Domestic policies Olivares, oil painting by Velazquez (1599-1660). In the Prado, Madrid. Archive Mas, Barcelona gitimate son, Julianillo Valcarcel, whom he later recog– nized and named Enrique Felipez de Guzman, marquis of Mairena. In 1615 Olivares became one of Prince Philip's six per– sonal attendants. When Philip was crowned king in April of 1621, he had just reached 16 years of age, and Olivares was approaching the age of 34. By this time Olivares, a man of unpleasing appearance and changing moods, had become the young king's irreplaceable companion. As Philip's favourite he was given the rank of grandee, the title most coveted by Castilian nobility. Reluctant to drop any part of his title, he styled himself "conde-duque" (count-duke). From 1623 until January 24, 1643, Olivares served as prime minister of Spain. He was unswervingly loyal to the King and was vehemently patriotic. He was also avid for power-both for himself and for Spain. The main objective of his domestic policy was to engender national unity among the separate kingdoms of the peninsula, kingdoms that he described as "anachronistic as cross– bows." He attempted many economic reforms aimed at relieving the difficult situation that had arisen as a result of long reliance on the influx of precious metals from the New World. Among these programs were restrictions on granting favours (except for honorary titles); recoining of the old copper alloy moneys; introduction of paper money; promotion, with the aid of the Castilian Cortes (council), of various royal decrees to stop the industrial and commercial decline of the kingdom; and a project whereby the shipping companies would be able to com– pete more advantageously with the Dutch, English, and French commercial fleets. But his attempts to promote trade and industry met with failure, due largely to the fact that aristocratic Castilians, slaves to the idea of a rigid class structure, looked down upon all mercantile professions. His moves toward centralizing power in the hands of the king and his ministers were partly responsi– ble for the revolts of the Catalans and the Portuguese, which began in 1640, and for an abortive conspiracy to form a separate Andalusian kingdom ( 1641 ) . In foreign policy Olivares was guided by the dream of austracismo, a joint European hegemony of the Austrian and Spanish Habsburg kingdoms. This policy meant con– tinued Spanish involvement in the Thirty Years' War and ended with the eclipse of Spanish power by France. Yet in the period of the Counter-Reformation, it is difficult to conceive of Spain following a different course: in this sense it was almost inevitable, and Olivares can hardly be judged in terms of its ultimate failure. One biographer has painted a picture of Olivares as the typical picnico, a man who was strong and slightly heavy, a man subject to wide and sudden ranges of mood-from Olivares' a maniacal, irrational exultation and optimism to corn- character plete despair and depression. He thus presented a sharp contrast to his main rival, Cardinal Richelieu of France, a cold, irritable, reserved man, known for using few words and taking swift action. In 1632 Olivares envi- sioned the inevitable destruction of the Spanish monar- chy; in 1635 he was convinced that, if all his war plans were executed, there would be no enemy capable of op- posing or defeating Spain. Scarcely two months later, in another mercurial change of mind, he again gave up any hope of Spain's retention of power. From that time on- ward, his moods tended more toward deep depression, with occasional euphoric interludes, such as that caused by the success of Spanish armed forces threatening Paris in December 1636. As a result of a court intrigue headed by the Queen (Elizabeth of France), Philip removed his ailing favour– ite from office in January 1643. Although the King would undoubtedly have liked to recall him later, other grandees, long jealous of his power, continued to dis– credit him. Eventually Olivares was exiled, along with his wife, to the city of Toro. In December 1644 the Inquisition began to investigate his conduct. He died at Toro on July 22, 1645. BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. MARANON, El conde-duque de Olivares (la pasi6n de mandar), 5th ed. (1965), an excellent psycho– logical study, although to some degree vindictive; E. zu– DAIRE HUARTE, El conde-duque y Cataluiia (1964), a valu– able study of the fight between Olivares' modern concept of the State and Catalonia's separatist policy; J .H. ELLIOTT, The Revolt of the Cata/ans: A Study in the Decline of Spain, 1598-1640 ( 1963), an analysis of the political relations be– tween Castille and Catalonia during the reign of Olivares, and Imperial Spain, 1469-1716 (1963), an excellent history of Spain dealing with the tensions that resulted from Cas– tille's unitarian policies and Catalonia's federalist policies. (E.Z.H.) Olivines The olivines comprise a group of common rock-forming silicate minerals that are closely related on chemical and structural grounds. The name olivine alludes to the quasi– olive green colour of the most abundant varieties, for– sterite and fayalite, which are silicates of magnesium and ferrous iron, respectively. Other members of the group may contain manganese or calcium in addition to, or substituting for, iron or magnesium; among these, the more important named varieties are tephroite (contain– ing manganese), monticellite (calcium and magnesium), kirschsteinite (calcium and iron), and glaucochroite (cal– cium and manganese). These varieties and some of their physical properties are listed in the accompanying Table. Some Physical Properties of the Olivines end members composition specific hardness on unit cell dimensions* gravity Mohs scale a b Forsterite Mg,SiO, 3.22 7 4.756 10.195 Fayalite Fe,SiO, 4.39 6½ 4.817 10.477 Tephroite Mn,SiO, 3.78 6 4.90 10.60 Monticellite CaMgSiO, 3.08 5'/, 4.815 11.08 Kirschsteinite CaFeSiO, - - - - Glaucochroite CaMnSiO, 3.41 - 4.92 11.19 *The unit cell is the smallest volume of a mineral containing a complete sample of the·atomic or molecular groups that comprise it. Unit cell dimensions along the three crystallographic axes (a, b, c) are given in angstrom units (one angstrom equals 10-s centimetres). The olivine minerals that contain magnesium and iron are generally believed to be among the most important minerals in the Earth's upper mantle (the region directly beneath the Earth's crust). They are particularly charac– teristic of basic and ultrabasic igneous rocks; that is, rocks that are relatively poor in silica and rich in iron and magnesium that crystallize from molten material within the Earth (Figure 1). They also occur in metamorphic C 5.918 6.105 6.25 6.37 - 6.51