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RICHARD GRAY 411 whereas Charles, faced with Lutheranism, had at one time foreseen himself as presiding over attempts at accommodation, Philip was always convinced that the defence of Catholicism depended primarily on his own control of Spanish power. Even before he had heard of the uprising in the Netherlands, he had instructed his ambassador in Rome to reassure Pius V that he did not intend, nor was he willing, "to be a lord of heretics" 14 • Philip was convinced that if he was to defend the Church effectively, the rights of the crown had to be pre– served. When therefore he learnt that the pope wished to send someone to Spanish America "who would depend directly on the Holy See and have the authority of a nuncio", he took steps to strengthen royal control over ecclesias– tical affairs in the Americas, and he informed the papal nuncio in Madrid that he had sent new officials there with instructions which he was confident would redound to God's service 15 • One of these officials, Francisco da Toledo, a close friend of Borgia, was appointed Viceroy of Peru, and by 1570 there were forty Jesuits in Lima 16 • Philip's action greatly strengthened the work of the religious Orders in Spanish America, but effectively it blocked any immediate develop– ment of the curial congregation in Rome. The intervention of the Jesuits had failed to create in Rome a permanent instrument for the control and guidance of all Catholic missions. Yet despite the brief existence of Pius V's congregation, its memory was kept alive in the papal curia, notably by Antonio Santori, who in 1570, aged thirty-eight, was created a cardinal by Pius. Santori was entrusted by Gregory XIII in 1573 with the reform of the Greek-rite Catholics in Italy, and subsequently he expanded his activities to become Protector of the Orient, particularly concerned with in– creasing Rome's influence among Christian communities living under Ottoman rule and beyond. In 1584 Gregory sent Giambattista Vecchietti, a distinguished Oriental linguist, to Egypt and Persia to strengthen these contacts. Simultane– ously he despatched Giovanni Battista Britti to Ethiopia via Goa, charged with attempting to persuade the Ethiopian king to make a formal act of obedience to the see of St. Peter. Like Vecchietti, Britti was a layman, one of the papal 14 Philip II to Requesens, 12. VIII. 1566 quoted in K. M. Setton, The Papary and the Le– vant, IV, Philadelphia 1984, 910. 15 L. Serrano, Comspondencia diplomdtica entre Bspanay la Santa Sede durante elpontiftcado de S. P/ o V, Madrid 914, II, 350s, 390, and III, 42. See also, for the part played by the Francis– can friar, Alonso Maldonado de Buendia, and his coatacts with Cardinal Crivelli: M. Monica, La gran controversia del siglo XVI acerca de/ dominio espailol en America, Madrid 1952, 159-163. 16 P. Suau, Histoire de S. Franrois de Bo,;gia, Paris 1910, 425.